Derrick Charway
Norwegian School of Sport Sciences
In today’s globalized world, sport is played everywhere and is often, albeit loosely, described as a social phenomenon that “transcends cultures”. Despite the transcending attribution, several sport studies in sociology (Cunningham, 2023) and psychology (Williams and Krane, 2021), in particular, have revealed that cultural diversity, perforce, remains constant. That is, cultural diversity is inevitable in and between groups/organizations with homogeneous or heterogeneous membership. The opportunity cost of failing to address or analyse cross-cultural diversity within and between groups can have implications for economic, interpersonal relationships, and organizational policy and management
In this book, Globalized Sport Management in Diverse Cultural Contexts, the authors took a cross-cultural approach, discussing sport in an interdisciplinary context. Topics covered include governance, marketing and consumer behaviour, migration, policy implementation, politics, broadcast and social media, fandom and historical trends. Empirically, the book presents several case studies and comparative analysis involving 26 scholars from nine countries across the globe. Here, a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods was used to conduct scientific investigation. A brief introduction (Chapter 1) precedes the remainder of the book chapters, which are divided into two distinct parts: (i) uniqueness and comparisons (Chapters 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8); and (ii) social issues and opportunities (Chapters 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14).
The introductory chapter provides a context for globalization beginning with the significance of the 1930s liberalization and the 1970s neoliberal policies that enabled easy cross-border accessibility, free trade, the emergence of multinational corporations as well as rapid advancements in communication and information technology. In light of this, the book accentuates that cultural diversity is a non-negotiable component of organizations, including those in the sport industry, thus the need for group dynamics management and development. In addition, a cross-cultural comparison was discussed along with a SWOT analysis for its management and development. A preamble was presented on complex managerial issues facing sports teams, clubs, or organizations. The issues relate to athlete migration, marketing, communication, television and broadcasting technology, global sport icons, and partnerships.
Here the authors draw insights from the economic concepts of complementarity and substitution effects.
Part I consists of cross-country and within-country comparisons covering unique topics. “Part I” begins with Chapter 2 which examines the socio-cultural comparison of Canadian and Belgian (with focus on the Flanders) youth sport participation. Drawing on each country’s sport policy objective/philosophy – “Sport for All” in Belgium and “Quality Daily Physical Education” in Canada – significant cross-cultural differences regarding youth involvement in sport, sport preference, socially stratified (i.e., age, sex and socio-economic status), club participation and parental influence were identified and discussed. Chapter 3 examines how the cultural position of sport, in essence, the primary and secondary positions, influences the importation of foreign athletes into Czech Republic sports over a period of nine league seasons. The chapter reveals that both primary sport leagues (football and ice hockey) and secondary sport leagues (basketball and baseball) have experienced an increase in foreign players. Contrary to the primary sport leagues, Czech players remained stable in secondary sports leagues. While the influx of foreign players had implications for homegrown players and the siphoning of the best players from other countries, the authors maintained that the phenomenon also serves to maintain Czech’s cultural identity.
Chapter 4 examines the relationship between sports spectatorship and physical activity participation (PAP) in 34 countries across the globe. Here the authors draw insights from the economic concepts of complementarity and substitution effects. In support of the complementarity effect, the study shows that sport spectatorship and performance at major sporting events like the Olympics is positively correlated with participation in PAP. In light of the substitution effect, spectatorship and the Olympics can negatively impact PAP for transitional/developing countries (in Asia and Eastern Europe) with a greater need to achieve health and PAP legacy goals. Chapter 5 examines how CEOs of diverse national sport federations in Germany pursued independent interests and failed to communicate and cooperate effectively. This is despite their similar public service significance in German communities. Thus, the chapter recommends that the German Olympic Sports Confederation must ensure one voice through effective governance, regardless of each national sport federation’s size, funds, or membership.
Chapter 6 illustrate how Taipei leveraged its hardworking culture to successfully host the 2017 Universiade despite protests from a section of the general public. In addition, positive structural, economic, and event organization legacies were discussed based on a documentary analysis of three areas, (1) research organizations, (2) journals, and (3) professional organizations. Chapter 7 shows a steady increase in sport management scientific research in Brazil from 2009 to 2019. Despite the diversity of topics discussed in the field, the authors acknowledge that research output, concepts, and methodologies can still be improved. In chapter 8, market segmentation of football fans in Poland was based on mixed behavioural variables comprising demographic variables (sex and age) and consumer variables (match attendance, merchandise purchase, word of mouth, and interest in social media). Accordingly, four segments (avid fans, casual fans, die-hard fans, and regular fans) were identified and discussed based on behavioural variables. To meet the unique needs and understand the behaviour of each segment, the authors provided policy recommendations to club managers.
In part II, social issues are addressed beginning with chapter 9. The chapter explores media coverage trends relating to women’s sports, particularly the US Women’s National Team (USWNT) and how despite significant success, media coverage continues to fall behind. Several topics, including sexism, sexualization, and differences in news coverage by the US media and at international sport events (FIFA and IOC), were discussed. Similarly, Chapter 10 addresses the inequitable treatment of USWNT despite their increased participation rates, historic victories and popularity. Inter alia, the underrepresentation of women’s voices in leadership, pay inequality and turf wars were discussed. The critical feminist theory was applied in chapter 11 to examine the impact feminist themes had on US National Women’s Soccer League marketing activities. It was identified that feminist themes regarding the pay gap, media coverage disparity, stereotypes (sexualization, objectification, commodification, and non-competitiveness) and the implications of homosexuality play a significant role in how clubs market and manage themselves.
The chapter concludes that “sport and politics are unavoidably intertwined”.
Chapter 12 presents a historical analysis of African American males (AAM) in four professional sport leagues (basketball, hockey, boxing, and football) and sports films from three eras. In essence, there are three eras: the traditional era (1930-1959), the transitional era (1960-1979) and the contemporary era (1980-2009). The chapter illustrates that AAM’s visibility in sport leagues and films gradually progressed, from the traditional to the contemporary eras. In light of this, the reasons for the gradual visibility improvement of each of the four sport teams and sport films were examined. However, the racial transformation associated with the civil rights movements and the cinematic shift that featured black protagonists was highlighted as key turning points in history.
In Chapter 13, the authors examine the development of basketball in USA from a social-cultural and historical perspective, including the emergence of ethnic teams, how it evolved into a global sport, and how it was marketed and exported. According to the chapter, basketball has been one of the most ethnically diverse games since its inception. As early as the early 1900s, white and Black Americans had encountered basketball. Further discussions were held regarding social advocacy for the involvement of African American communities, the professionalization of basketball, and international exposure to basketball.
The final chapter of this book presents a case study of four Venezuelan athletes who were discriminated against by Venezuelans. It was reported that the four athletes supported former Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez, whose political era was characterized by an economic crisis, mass protests, a poor economy and unrest. It was detailed by the author how each of the four athletes divided public opinion with their statements of support, leading to jeers and boos on and off the playing field. In addition, the author discusses how athletes’ political opinions and public reactions provide insight into how social representations are organized in sport. The chapter concludes that “sport and politics are unavoidably intertwined”.
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Diversity is complex to unpack. The book attempts to provide a comprehensive understanding of what diversity is, the context within which it occurs, and how it is managed across cultures. Besides focusing on management and cultural diversity, the book is designed to provide readers with multicultural competence essential to professional practice.
The book is well-structured and easy to read, but it lacks an abstract for each chapter that could pique the interest of potential readers. Additionally, there is merit in focusing on macro- (policy) and meso- (organizations) levels of analysis, but fine-tooth analysis at the micro level in sport organizational management may reveal more about cultural diversity in practice.
Copyright © Derrick Charway 2023
References
Cunningham, G. B. (2023). Diversity and inclusion in sport Organizations: A Multilevel Perspective. (5th edition). Routledge
Williams, J. M. and Krane, V. (2021). Applied Psychology. Personal Growth to peak performance. (8th edition). McGraw-Hill Education.
Table of Content
Part I. Uniqueness and comparisons
Part II. Social issues and opportunities
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